Covey -- The Encounter

The Alhambra, Granada, Spain

Material and Spiritual/Religious Motivations for Spanish and Portuguese Exploration

• 1453: Ottomans topple remains of Byzantine Empire, changing access to overland trade routes to Asia.

• Portuguese begin exploring the African coast; Columbus proposes to sail west to reach India.

• 1492: Muslim Granada is defeated; Columbus reaches Americas.

Ferdinand Magellan

Some Dates of Important European Encounters in the Americas

• 1492: Christopher Columbus arrives in the Caribbean on his first voyage, encounters the local Taino people.

• 1494: Treaty of Tordesillas divides the world between Spain and Portugal for missionization.

• 1500: Pedro Álvares Cabral arrives in Brazil.

• 1513: Vasco Núñez de Balboa reaches the Pacific Ocean in Panama.

• 1519: Magellan’s expedition circumnavigates the globe.

Cortéz meets Moctesuma Cortes meets Moctezuma II, 1519

Conquest of the Aztecs (1519)

Prior to the arrival of Cortés, the Aztecs witnessed a number of negative omens, interpreted as signs of bad things to come.

Cortés departed from Santiago de Cuba against the orders of the governor, sailing to the Yucatan, where he encountered a shipwrecked Spaniard who could speak the Mayan language. Continuing along the Gulf Coast of what is today Mexico, the Spaniards encountered local people who gave them food and some gold. They also met a native woman named Malinche, who spoke Nahuatl and served as interpreter and advisor.

Arriving in Cempoala near modern Veracruz, the Spaniards found that the local Totonac people were willing to help them fight against their Aztec overlords. Montezuma II, the Aztec emperor, send officials to the coast to welcome—and observe—the strangers. Cortés made a show of force for the Aztec envoys, then sank his ships and began the journey to Tenochtitlán.

On the 200 mile march to the Basin of Mexico, the Spaniards passed the territory of the Tlaxcalans, a group that remained independent of—but at war with—the Aztecs. Cortés offered them a military alliance, but they attacked the Spaniards. The Tlaxcalans were defeated, and agreed to join the Spaniards against the Aztecs.

The Spaniards arrived in the Aztec capital on November 8, 1519, and were met by Montezuma, who exchanged gifts with Cortés. Montezuma had the Spaniards brought into the city and given more gifts and lavish housing. The Spaniards were overwhelmed by the Aztec capital. To guarantee their safety, Cortés had Montezuma detained on November 16. Resistance developed as the Spaniards tried to control the Aztecs through Montezuma.

Violence broke out between Spaniards as an arrest party from Cuba arrived on the coast and was attacked by Cortés. Meanwhile, the Spaniards under Pedro de Alvarado imprisoned Aztec leaders and killed others, massacring a large number during a festival to Huiztilopochtli. Cortés returned to the city as the Spaniards were under siege. Montezuma was killed while trying to pacify his people, and the Spanish were forced to flee the city, many dying along the way.

As the Spaniards and Tlaxcalans retreated, they were attacked by Aztec warriors in canoes. At least 600 Spaniards were killed, some falling from the causeways and drowning under the weight of gold they were carrying. Thousands of Tlaxcalans also died during the retreat from Tenochtitlán. The Spaniards rallied their native allies and put Tenochtitlán under siege, taking over the other towns of the Basin of Mexico and building boats to attack the city with cannon and firearms. Smallpox and hunger killed large numbers of Aztecs in the city. The Spaniards and their allies fought their way back into the Aztec capital, taking the city over the course of an 80-day siege. The Aztecs under Cuautemoc surrendered.

Pizarro in the Battle of Cajamarca, 1532

Conquest of the Incas (1532)

c. 1525: The Inca emperor Huayna Capac dies unexpectedly in Quito, plunging the Inca empire into a civil war between Atahuallpa and his half-brother Huascar.

1526: Francisco de Pizarro and Diego de Almagro establish a partnership to explore the Pacific Coast of South America and look for the kingdom of Piru.

1532: After two unsuccessful voyages, the Spaniards reach Tumbez, setting foot in the Inca empire.

16 November 1532: The Spanish force travels to Cajamarca to find Atahuallpa, the Inca ruler. They ambush him and take him prisoner. Atahuallpa offers to pay a ransom of gold and silver. After he does, the Spaniards kill him and appoint a half brother as ruler

1533: The Spanish force arrives in Cusco. They begin to seek out gold and other plunder

1536: The Incas under Manco Inca rise up against the Spaniards, placing Cusco under siege and burning much of the city. As Inca forces are being defeated, the Spaniards turn on each other. Civil war and rebellions occur in the 1540s and 1550s.

1572: Tupa Amaru, the Inca ruler of the holdout polity in Vilcabamba, is captured and executed in Cusco.

Institutional Effects of Conquest

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Front cover of "Suma de Geographia, by Martín Fernández Enciso. Sevilla, 1519. This work contains the first description of the lands of the New World, and especially their coasts.	Bartolomé de Las Casas
The Encounter (Prof. R. Alan Covey, 13 September 2005)
The Alhambra, Granada, Spain Material and Spiritual/Religious Motivations for Spanish and Portuguese Exploration • 1453: Ottomans topple remains of Byzantine Empire, changing access to overland trade routes to Asia. • Portuguese begin exploring the African coast; Columbus proposes to sail west to reach India. • 1492: Muslim Granada is defeated; Columbus reaches Americas. Ferdinand Magellan Some Dates of Important European Encounters in the Americas • 1492: Christopher Columbus arrives in the Caribbean on his first voyage, encounters the local Taino people. • 1494: Treaty of Tordesillas divides the world between Spain and Portugal for missionization. • 1500: Pedro Álvares Cabral arrives in Brazil. • 1513: Vasco Núñez de Balboa reaches the Pacific Ocean in Panama. • 1519: Magellan’s expedition circumnavigates the globe. Cortes meets Moctezuma II, 1519 Conquest of the Aztecs (1519) Prior to the arrival of Cortés, the Aztecs witnessed a number of negative omens, interpreted as signs of bad things to come. Cortés departed from Santiago de Cuba against the orders of the governor, sailing to the Yucatan, where he encountered a shipwrecked Spaniard who could speak the Mayan language. Continuing along the Gulf Coast of what is today Mexico, the Spaniards encountered local people who gave them food and some gold. They also met a native woman named Malinche, who spoke Nahuatl and served as interpreter and advisor. Arriving in Cempoala near modern Veracruz, the Spaniards found that the local Totonac people were willing to help them fight against their Aztec overlords. Montezuma II, the Aztec emperor, send officials to the coast to welcome—and observe—the strangers. Cortés made a show of force for the Aztec envoys, then sank his ships and began the journey to Tenochtitlán. On the 200 mile march to the Basin of Mexico, the Spaniards passed the territory of the Tlaxcalans, a group that remained independent of—but at war with—the Aztecs. Cortés offered them a military alliance, but they attacked the Spaniards. The Tlaxcalans were defeated, and agreed to join the Spaniards against the Aztecs. The Spaniards arrived in the Aztec capital on November 8, 1519, and were met by Montezuma, who exchanged gifts with Cortés. Montezuma had the Spaniards brought into the city and given more gifts and lavish housing. The Spaniards were overwhelmed by the Aztec capital. To guarantee their safety, Cortés had Montezuma detained on November 16. Resistance developed as the Spaniards tried to control the Aztecs through Montezuma. Violence broke out between Spaniards as an arrest party from Cuba arrived on the coast and was attacked by Cortés. Meanwhile, the Spaniards under Pedro de Alvarado imprisoned Aztec leaders and killed others, massacring a large number during a festival to Huiztilopochtli. Cortés returned to the city as the Spaniards were under siege. Montezuma was killed while trying to pacify his people, and the Spanish were forced to flee the city, many dying along the way. As the Spaniards and Tlaxcalans retreated, they were attacked by Aztec warriors in canoes. At least 600 Spaniards were killed, some falling from the causeways and drowning under the weight of gold they were carrying. Thousands of Tlaxcalans also died during the retreat from Tenochtitlán. The Spaniards rallied their native allies and put Tenochtitlán under siege, taking over the other towns of the Basin of Mexico and building boats to attack the city with cannon and firearms. Smallpox and hunger killed large numbers of Aztecs in the city. The Spaniards and their allies fought their way back into the Aztec capital, taking the city over the course of an 80-day siege. The Aztecs under Cuautemoc surrendered. Pizarro in the Battle of Cajamarca, 1532 Conquest of the Incas (1532) c. 1525: The Inca emperor Huayna Capac dies unexpectedly in Quito, plunging the Inca empire into a civil war between Atahuallpa and his half-brother Huascar. 1526: Francisco de Pizarro and Diego de Almagro establish a partnership to explore the Pacific Coast of South America and look for the kingdom of Piru. 1532: After two unsuccessful voyages, the Spaniards reach Tumbez, setting foot in the Inca empire. 16 November 1532: The Spanish force travels to Cajamarca to find Atahuallpa, the Inca ruler. They ambush him and take him prisoner. Atahuallpa offers to pay a ransom of gold and silver. After he does, the Spaniards kill him and appoint a half brother as ruler 1533: The Spanish force arrives in Cusco. They begin to seek out gold and other plunder 1536: The Incas under Manco Inca rise up against the Spaniards, placing Cusco under siege and burning much of the city. As Inca forces are being defeated, the Spaniards turn on each other. Civil war and rebellions occur in the 1540s and 1550s. 1572: Tupa Amaru, the Inca ruler of the holdout polity in Vilcabamba, is captured and executed in Cusco. Institutional Effects of Conquest
	Social Effect of Conquest in the Americas • Population loss • Transformation of existing tributary and kin modes of production • Establishment of criollo and mestizo groups, African slaves Political Effects of Conquest in the Americas • Imposition of Spanish colonial government • Establishment of the encomienda system Economic Effects of Conquest in the Americas • Introduction of currency-based economy and new form of tribute system • The Columbian Exchange—transfer of plants and animals (and technology and values) between the New and Old World Religious Effects of Conquest in the Americas • Catholic missionization, syncretism • Arguments over the morality of Spanish Conquest (Bartolomé de Las Casas)

The Encounter

(Prof. R. Alan Covey, 13 September 2005)